Shelf Life Degradation of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells: Intrinsic Evolution of Charge Transfer Complex

Abstract

Achievement of long-term stability of organic photovoltaics is currently one of the major topics for this technology to reach maturity. Most of the techniques used to reveal degradation pathways are destructive and/or do not allow for real-time measurements in operating devices. Here, three different, nondestructive techniques able to provide real-time information, namely, film absorbance, capacitance–voltage (C–V), and impedance spectroscopy (IS), are combined over a period of 1 year using non-accelerated intrinsic degradation conditions. It is discerned between chemical modifications in the active layer, physical processes taking place in the bulk of the blend from those at the active layer/contact interfaces. In particular, it is observed that during the ageing experiment, the main source for device performance degradation is the formation of donor–acceptor charge-transfer complex (math formula–math formula) that acts as an exciton quencher. Generation of these radical species diminishes photocurrent and reduces open-circuit voltage by the creation of electronic defect states. Conclusions extracted from absorption, C–V, and IS measurements will be further supported by a range of other techniques such as atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and dark-field imaging of scanning transmission electron microscopy on ultrathin cross-sections.