Enzymatic Δ1-Dehydrogenation of 3-Ketosteroids—Reconciliation of Kinetic Isotope Effects with the Reaction Mechanism

Abstract

Δ1-Dehydrogenation of 3-ketosteroids catalyzed by flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent 3-ketosteroid dehydrogenases (Δ1-KSTD) is a crucial step in steroid degradation and synthesis of several steroid drugs. The catalytic mechanism assumes the formation of a double bond in two steps, proton abstraction by tyrosyl ion, and a rate-limiting hydride transfer to FAD. This hypothesis was never verified by quantum-mechanical studies despite contradictory results from the kinetic isotope effect (KIE) reported in 1960 by Jerussi and Ringold [Biochemistry1965, 4 (10)]. In this paper, we present results that reconcile the mechanistic hypothesis with experimental evidence. Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics molecular dynamics simulations show that the proposed mechanism is indeed the most probable, but barriers associated with substrate activation (13.4–16.3 kcal·mol–1) and hydride transfer (15.5–18.0 kcal·mol–1) are very close (1.7–2.1 kcal·mol–1), which explains normal KIE values for steroids labeled either at C1 or C2 atoms. We confirm that tyrosyl ion acting as the catalytic base is indeed necessary for efficient activation of the steroid. We explain the lower value of the observed KIE (1.5–3.5) by the nature of the free energy surface, the presence of diffusion limitation, and to a smaller extent, conformational changes of the enzyme upon substrate binding. Finally, we confirm the Ping-Pong bi–bi kinetics of the whole Δ1-dehydrogenation and demonstrate that substrate binding, steroid dehydrogenation, and enzyme reoxidation proceed at comparable rates.